Simulation of Personal Emotion Experience

Reeves & NAS (1996) showed that humans like to communicate with computers as they do with people. Software applications which include models of emotional processes are needed to model the social and emotional aspects of human-machine interaction. Extending classic AAA and logic by adding simulated emotions can be useful to improve the user's experience in many ways. This chapter will provide a brief overview of existing solutions and models used for artificial emotions (AWE) and present a novel model of emotion simulation (SIMPLEX).Empirical data will be reported on its performance, especially the occurrence of emotions, in a game environment. This chapter concludes with a comment on the usefulness of separating AAA and AWE engendering recent advances in cognitive neuroscience. 2. Models for artificial emotions 2. 1 Historical roots The ass saw what might have been the first debate about emotions and artificial intelligence. The main and – as we know now – most importan t point was that purely cognitive systems lacked emotions, which strongly influence human thought processes.. Two of the models that emerged at that time will be described here.Simony's interrupt system Herbert Simon was the first to propose that emotions should be part of a model of cognitive processes (Simon, 1967). His intention was to provide a theoretical inundation for a system incorporating emotions and multiple goals. Within this system, important processes could be interrupted so that more attention went into satisfying important needs (e. G. Hunger, safety). Herbert Simon imagined two parallel systems, one designed to achieve goals (cognition, planning) and one observing the environment for events that require immediate attention (emotions).Indeed, the possibility of interrupting current cognitive processes is 2 Name of the book (Header position 1,5) vital for survival, as it makes it possible to react to threats, but also to pay more attention to one's surroundings when a threat is expected. Today's Fungus Eater Another step towards a theory for the computer modeling of emotions was made by the psychologist Mason Toad (Toad, 1982) between 1961 and 1980, with a model called the Fungus Eater. This model resulted in the design of an autonomous robot system and partial implementations.At first, Toad only wanted to create a scenario for a cognitive system that would require concentrating on multiple issues at the same time. In this scenario, the task was collecting as much ore as possible with the help of a mining robot. Operating his robot required energy that could only be gained by collecting a special fungus. Additionally, different Fungus Eaters were competing for the same resources, thus making the scenario more complicated. Toad came to the conclusion that in order to survive on their own, these Fungus Eaters would need to have emotions and to be partially controlled by them.However, Toad named them â€Å"urges† instead of emotions and on c loser examination, it is apparent that some of these are actual emotions like joy or anger, while others are needs, goals or motives (e. G. Hunger). 2. 2 Theoretical approach and recent models There are roughly three areas where emotion models are applied. Artificial emotions (AWE) can be used to improve problem-solving in complex environments, as in the early approaches mentioned above. Emotion models can also be used to test psychological emotion theories in experiments using controlled scenarios.Finally, emotions are essential to make computer characters more believable. Emotion models which synthesize and express emotions are necessary to make AAA characters more human- like. These models will be the focus of the next sections as they have inspired our own emotional model. The most influential theoretical approach, COCO, will be presented in detail, as it is the basis of many computational models of emotion. Then, three interesting recent models are briefly described.COCO â€⠀œ a theoretical approach to simulate emotions The COCO model by Retort, Color and Collins is an emotion theory based on appraisal which was explicitly developed to offer a foundation for artificial emotion systems (Retort, Color, & Collins, 1988). Its authors succeeded as it inspired many modern models and approaches to artificial emotions. The basis of the model is that emotions are reactions to the attributes of objects, to vents or to actions. Note that internal events (like bodily sensations or memories) which are a part of most modern emotion theories are neglected in the COCO approach.Objects, events and actions are evaluated in an appraisal process based on specific criteria, and result in multiple emotions of different intensities. Figure 1 gives an overview of the COCO approach. Appraising the aspects of objects requires the agent to have attitudes (tastes or preferences) in order to decide whether the object is appealing or not. This appraisal process results in either lo ve or hate. Chapter Title (Header position 1,5) 3 Fig. 1. The COCO model Events, or rather consequences of events, are appraised by analyzing their impact on the agent's goals. This determines the desirability of events.The degree of desirability depends on how much closer to or further away from achieving the goal the agent will be after the event. The emotions of Joy and distress are direct results of desirable and undesirable events, considering the consequences they have for the agent himself. Some emotions, like for example pity, are triggered when processing events that have consequences for other agents. An open issue is whether this appraisal should be based upon the agent's own goals or rather the other agent's goals. How much should an agent be empathic if another one looses something that is not important to the first agent?In an attempt to solve this issue, abstract goals were introduced (such as for example, not losing property). It eventually became clear that it is ve ry important to keep the goals general and abstract, to avoid having to define too many specific goals. The emotions triggered by reacting to other agents' good or bad fortune depend on how well-liked they are. Another agent's bad fortune can trigger pity or gloating, while happy events can result in either feeling of happiness or of resentment, depending on the relationship between the agents.Appraising an event also means evaluating its prospects – hoping or fearing that something will or will not occur. Prospect-based emotions include disappointment and relief. The intensity of these emotions is usually based on the intensity of the preceding hope or fear. The criterion used to appraise the actions of agents is their praiseworthiness, which is based on the agent's standards. Generally, praiseworthy actions cause pride and blameworthy actions cause shame, if the agent himself is the one acting.When the actions of other agents are 4 appraised, the emotions triggered are admi ration or reproach. Standards can be as complex as attitudes (aspects of objects) and goals (consequences of events), and are almost as subjective and individual. Again, the problem of listing them was solved by describing actions in an abstract way. An interesting phenomenon is the ability of feeling proud or ashamed of someone else's actions. Simply put, the closer an agent feels related to the acting agent(s), the more he will identify with him in appraising is actions.Examples of this phenomenon (called the strength of the cognitive unit) can range from parents being proud of their child to soccer fans being ashamed of their team's performance. One of the many practical implementations of COCO is the model by Stapler & PETA (1999). They constructed a virtual agent which emotion architecture links discrete emotions categories to 14 action response categories, comprising a large range of individual actions. The COCO emotion model is also partly congruent with Nice Fried's renewed theory of emotions (Afraid, 1986). For more details on emotion theory, see Trace & Kessler (2003).Artificial Emotion Engine The aim of the Emotion Engine (E) is to control the behavior of an artificial agent in complex scenarios. It is made of three layers- emotions, mood and personality (Wilson, 2000). If an emotion is triggered, the actions will be based on this emotion. When emotions are not triggered, the engine bases its actions on the current mood; when no mood is activated, then personality serves as a basis for behavior. The emotion engine is based on the FEE model, which is a three-dimensional space, describing personality traits in terms of Extroversion, Fear and Aggression.Within this space, an area around the point representing an artificial agent's personality is determined and all traits located inside this area are considered to be available to the specific character. For Wilson, the FEE is congruent with the three central systems of the human brain which according to Gray (Gray & McLaughlin, 1996) determine behavior: the Approach system, the Behavior Inhibition system and the Fight/Flight system. These three basic dimensions are intuitive, which makes programming easy. Different personalities trigger some moods more frequently than others: extroversion s linked to good moods, and fear to negative moods.Aggression affects the speed of mood changes. Reward and punishment signals work as the main inputs, and this is comparable with the desirability of events in COCO. Inputs are adjusted based on personality, but also on how often this input occurred before. An agent can get used to a certain input, and this lowers the impact it will eventually have (habituation). On the contrary, a rare or unprecedented input will have more effect (novelty). Needs are organized hierarchically. Physiological needs, such as hunger, thirst, and the need for warmth and energy are the most important.Each of these needs can become a priority, as when for example a very hungry agent will consider eating as his most important goal. Safety, affiliation and esteem needs are the remaining layers. While physiological needs are the most important, the order of the other layers can vary, depending on what is more important to the agent. Memory is very limited; an agent only remembers how much he likes the other agents. In the same way, in COCO, sympathy is used to cause different emotions for liked and disliked entities. Only the six basic emotions of fear, anger, Joy, sadness, disgust and surprise can be triggered.This might appear like a limited selection compared to the 24 emotions of COCO, but given the reactive nature of emotions in this model (working without inner events and 5 triggers) and since some emotion theorists consider the broad spectrum of emotions as mixtures of these basic emotions, this is quite a sensible choice. Personality is used to adjust the intensity or the frequency of the occurrence of emotions, so that a character with person ality that is â€Å"low in Fear† will simply not experience as much fear as others.FLAME The Fuzzy Logic Adaptive Model of Emotion (FLAME) is partially based on COCO, but hat differentiates FLAME from other models is the use of fuzzy logic. This results in a relatively simple appraisal process. FLAME can integrate multiple emotions at the same time (in a process called emotional filtering), as emotions at times inhibit one another. For example, imagine an agent feeling Joy and pride because he Just obtained a new position, but who at the same time feels anger, because a relative of the boss of the company was given a higher position than himself. At this point, his anger may prevent him from feeling joy any longer.When opposite emotions occur, FLAME lets the stronger emotion inhibit the weaker one(s), giving a slightly stronger weight to negative emotions. Another way to handle conflicting emotions is through mood, which is determined by comparing the intensities of positive and negative emotions over the last few steps. If the summed up intensities of positive emotions are higher than that of the negative emotions, then the mood will be positive. If a positive and a negative emotion of comparable intensities occur at the same time, the mood determines which of these emotions will inhibit the other one.As there is little research about the decay of emotions, FLAME uses a simple constant cay, though positive emotions decay faster than negative emotions. FLAME does not make it possible to implement an agent's personality; instead, differences in behavior are created through learning. For example, an agent may learn that reacting in an angry way will enable him to reach his goals, thus enticing him to be more choleric. FLAME implements multiple types of learning, such as classical conditioning (associating expectations with objects) which occurs in many situations, triggering fear or hope.Another type of learning is learning about consequences of actions o r events. This is simple whenever an action directly causes a result. For example, learning that eating will result in feeling less hungry is rather trivial. In the case of more complex causal relations over time, FLAME is using Q-learning, a form of reinforcement learning. Another form of learning, quite similar to model learning, is the ability to recognize patterns in the behavior of a user by observing sequences of actions. For this type of learning, FLAME simply counts the occurrences of sequences.The last type of learning in FLAME, but one of the most important, is learning about the value of actions. Remember that COCO relies on the praiseworthiness of actions, which is based on the agent's standards. In FLAME, these standards are not predefined knowledge, but they are learned from the interaction between users. Using learning instead of predefined knowledge seems like a very sensible way to avoid most of the troubling issues that come with using COCO. Additionally, learning allows agents to adjust, which makes them all the more believable.ALMA The intention in designing A Layered Model of Affect (ALMA) was to control agents in conversational scenarios. In interactive game or learning environments, the artificial harassers display facial expressions of emotions and moods through their postures to 6 appear more believable. Emotions, moods and personalities are implemented and interact with each other. Events and actions are described in terms of abstract tags which are then evaluated during the appraisal process and describe things like for example the expressed emotion or gesture accompanying an action or simply if something is a good or bad event.As ALMA is aimed at conversations, an action is often a statement. Hence, there are tags to describe the kind of statement, for example if it was an insult or a compliment. In addition, ALMA requires defining personality profiles for each agent. Essentially, these profiles already contain the desirability and praiseworthiness the agent assigns to certain tags. Since our own emotion model shares some features with ALMA (see below) a key difference should be pointed out. In SIMPLEX we considered it impractical to explicitly specify this information, as this would have limited the model to a small number of agents.So instead of using tags, our model requires to specify goals and their priorities for an agent, where generic goals can be used for all agents. Events still need to be scribed in a special way, but this is reduced too relatively objective list of which agents goals are affected and in which way. All other information like praiseworthiness is automatically derived from this and the agent's personality. Although this approach is providing less control over an agent's appraisal process, it is better suited for a generic system meant to be used with minimal extra effort. 3. SIMPLEX – Simulation of Personal Emotion Experience 3. Overview SIMPLEX is a context-independent module to create emotions as a result of primary application (environment) events. Goals, emotions, mood-states, personality, memory and relationships between agents have been modeled so they could interact as in real life. Figure 2 shows an overview of the model. SIMPLEX is based on the COCO model by Retort, Color and Collins (1988) in that it creates discrete emotions by appraising events based on the desirability of their consequences and the praiseworthiness of the actions of agents. The appraisal process was modified by including the personality of virtual agents.The personality component is based on the Five Factor Model (FM) introduced by psychologists McCrae & Costa (1987), which includes extroversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, neurotics and openness. The personality module influences the emotion module on multiple levels during appraisal processes and in the development of mood-states. Other important aspects of the model are mood-states and relationships. Mood- states are represented in a three-dimensional space which dimensions are pleasure, arousal and dominance (Bradley & Lang, 1994), and they are based on active or recently experienced emotions (implemented by pull-functions).In the absence of motions, a mood state will slowly gravitate back to a default mood-state based on the agent's personality. A mood-state also functions as a threshold to determine whether an emotion is strong enough to become active at a given time. Relationships are handled as if they were mood-states towards other agents (for instance a player in a game scenario): they are based on emotions caused by other agents and they can be considered as a simplified way to store memories of experiences with these agents.They are used as thresholds as well; for example, an agent will be more likely to become angry at another agent towards when their legislation is in the range of negative valence. 7 Fig. 2. The emotion module SIMPLEX Personality (long-term), mood-state (mid-term) an d emotions (short-term) thus represent three levels of the emotion module that interact with each other in order to create believable agents. Events from the scenario serve as the model's inputs. They are appraised according to the COCO algorithm (see figure 1).This appraisal is influenced by the agent's goals, his personality and his relationships with other agents. At the end of an appraisal one or several discrete emotions are generated. These emotions and the current mood-state are represented in the same three- dimensional PAD space: on the one hand, the emotion(s) serve(s) as an attractor for the recent mood-state position (pull function). On the other hand, the closer an emotion is located to the current mood-state, the more probable it will be that the emotion will be activated.The speed at which the mood-state changes, is influenced by the agent's neurotics (a personality variable). Additionally, emotions that are caused by other agents will influence another mood-state rep resentation (stored on another PAD space) representing the relationship with that agent. Thus, every agent has specific relationships with other agents, which influences his behavior towards others. Emotions, mood-states and relationships with other agents are the outputs of the model and can be used by the AAA application.Originally, the PAD space was designed to represent emotions in a dimensional rather than a discrete way (Russell, 1978). In our model, PAD is used as a common space where three different constructs (discrete COCO emotions, continuous mood- states and personality), are represented in order to be handled together by the SIMPLEX algorithm. An agent's current mood-state is thus the result of a mathematical function which takes into account the default mood (defined by personality), the pulling behavior of COCO emotion(s) triggered by appraisals, and weighed factors influencing movement speed (see equation 1).Mood-state = f(PADDED, Paternosters, Filter) 8 3. 2 Basic c omponents Mood-state represented in the PAD-Space (Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance) Beyond discrete emotions, which are typically short-term, mood-states are a powerful way to model emotional shifts and explain affective influences over longer periods of time. To implement mood-states in our model, we chose to use Russell three-dimensional space to describe emotions (Russell, 1978) and Meridian's concept of how emotions are linked to personality traits (Meridian, 1996).The dimension of Pleasure encompasses valence ranging from very positive to very negative. Arousal is an indicator of how intensely something is perceived, or of how much it affects the organism. Dominance is a measure of experienced control over the situation. For example, a different degree of dominance can make the difference between fear and anger. Both of these emotions are states of negative valence and sigh arousal, but not feeling in control is what differentiates fear from anger. When an agent is angry, it is beca use he believes he can have a potential influence.Although emotions are triggered by COCO appraisals and are therefore discrete, they are handled in a continuous three-dimensional space by SIMPLEX. The advantage of treating emotions in this way and not Just as a fixed set of possible emotions is that it makes it possible to represent emotions that do not even have a name. It also creates the possibility to combine emotions, mood-state and personality in one space. First, a ordinate in PAD space can obviously represent an agent's mood-state. But emotions and personalities can also be described in terms of Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance values.For example, the value of arousal can be not only the degree of arousal associated with a specific emotion, but also the restorability of a person. Meridian (1996) gives specific names to the resulting different octants in PAD-space and describes the diagonally opposite octants as Exuberant/Bored, Dependent/ Disdainful, Relaxed/Anxious, Docile/ Hostile. Thus mood-states are not points but octants of the Bedspread. However, positioning a personality (based on FM) within a PAD-space could have been a rather difficult task, since there is no mathematically- correct way to make the conversion.Luckily, this transformation can be based upon empirical data. Meridian provided such a conversion table from FM to PAD after correlation analyses of questionnaires measuring both constructs in healthy subjects (Meridian, 1996). Five Factor Model of Personality (FM) The implementation of personality is a key factor when creating believable agents that differ from each other. COCO already offers a few possibilities: different goals, tankards and attitudes automatically result in differences during the appraisal process.However, since personality goes beyond preferences, it was necessary to find a model of personality that made it possible to adjust the appraisal process, to shift the agent's perception and to influence mood-states. The mod el chosen for SIMPLEX was the Five Factor Model (McCrae & Costa, 1987). After years of research, an agreement emerged that five groups of traits are sufficient to describe a personality. Using self-report questionnaires with multiple items, a personality profile can be provided for each individual scoring high or low in each of he five factors (this approach is called â€Å"dimensional†).In the case of our model, the value for each factor can be typed in when defining the artificial agent. 9 Agreeableness refers to a tendency to cooperate and to compromise, in order to interact with others in an agreeable way. High agreeableness often means having a positive outlook on human nature, assuming people to be good rather than bad. Low agreeableness is essentially selfishness, putting your own needs above the needs of others and not caring about the consequences your actions might have for others. Conscientiousness is usually high in people who plan a lot, who think everything thro ugh, and who are very tidy or achievers.Extreme cases can appear to be compulsive or pedantic. The opposite personality trait includes sloppiness or ignoring one's duties. Extroversion can be a measure of how much people experience positive emotions. An enthusiastic and active person that enjoys company and attention is extroverted, while a quiet individual who needs to spend more time alone is introverted. Neurotics is partly an opposite of Extroversion in being a tendency to experience negative emotions. However, being neurotic also means being more sensitive in general, and reacting emotionally to unimportant events that wouldn't usually trigger a response.Neurotics can be prone to mood swings and tend to be more negative in their interpretation of situations. Low neurotics means high emotional stability and describes calm people who are not easily upset. Finally, those scoring high on Openness to Experience are creative and curious individuals, interested in art and more in touc h with their own emotions than others. Those scoring low on that dimension are conservative persons with few interests, hey prefer straight and simple things rather than fancy ones, and they do not care about art or science.It is suspected that Openness can be influenced by education. 3. 3 Technical implementation The appraisal process and the generation of emotions There are three categories of inputs to the appraisal process of the emotion model: consequences of events, actions of agents and objects (see the COCO model in figure 1). The following section will describe the respective mechanisms applied when mapping each type of input to emotions. Each event handled by a character is first adjusted according to the agent's rationality.First, the consequences are adjusted based on the agent's neurotics. As neurotic people tend to see things more negatively, consequences are rated worse than what they actually are. The factor by which neurotics can reduce the desirability of events is adjustable. Note that all personality traits are in the range [-1; 1], so that negative neurotics actually makes consequences more positive. In real life, positive people could think â€Å"it could have been worse†. The desirability of events is determined by (predefined) goals during the event appraisal.A goal consists of two aspects: relevance [O; 1] and state of realization [O; 1], which means to which percentage the goal is already achieved. Afterwards, the praiseworthiness of actions is determined. Basically, the more positive consequences an action has, the more praiseworthy it is considered to be. Sympathy plays a role in this process, as it is added to positive values and subtracted from negative ones. Consequences for self are considered to be more important than consequences for others, which are currently factored in at 50% of their value. 0 After the adjusted values for all consequences have been summed up, unconsciousness is used to obtain the final result, by b eing scaled and subtracted. Thus the more conscientious an agent is, the harder it will be to commit an action positive enough to be deemed praiseworthy. This applies to both actions of other agents and actions of the agent himself. Agreeableness works the opposite way, but only for the actions of others. This is based on the psychological notion that agreeable people tend to be more forgiving in order to get along with others.Apart from having a different weight, factoring in agreeableness has the same results as active conscientiousness. The remaining factors serving as parameters for the action (responsibility, unexpectedness, publicizes) are averaged and used to scale the result of the above calculations. Finally, as cost is attempted to be derived from consequences for self, it is subtracted, before the calculated praiseworthiness is averaged over the number of consequences or rather the number of affected agents. The resulting value of praiseworthiness is used as the intensity for admiration or reproach, depending on whether it is positive or negative.If the agent is appraising his own actions, the motions are pride or shame instead of admiration and reproach. Once the praiseworthiness has been calculated, a search is conducted through the list of prospects for all the ones that are active and that match the name of the event. For each, the prospect appraisal function is called, which determines the net desirability by multiplying it with the affected goal's relevance. This value will be compared to the expected desirability for this event. The simplest situation is when a positive consequence was expected but a negative one occurs.This would obviously cause disappointment. However, this is also the case if a very high desirability was hoped for and the actual consequences are less positive, but still not negative. Having a hope fulfilled results in satisfaction. If an event has exactly the expected consequences, it results in the full intensity for the emotion. The intensity of emotions is the product of the determined quality of the event and of the intensity of the prospects. For example, if there was very little hope, there cannot be strong satisfaction. Which emotion is created depends on the kind of prospect and on the sign of the quality value.Hope and positive quality result in satisfaction, hope and negative quality in disappointment, fear and positive quality in fears-confirmed and fear and negative quality in relief. After the prospect appraisal is done, short term or one-shot prospects (only valid for one round) are removed. Appraisal concerning Joy and distress is done for each consequence affecting the agent himself, while appraisal for pity/gloating and happy-for/resentment is done for the remaining consequences.

Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1934?

The S. A. was, essentially, the private army of the NSDAP. During the years of endemic violence in Germany after its defeat in the First World War until 1925, and again after 1930, after the prosperity brought by the Young plan evaporated with the Wall Street Crash of October 1929, such private armies were commonplace, and indeed necessary. Many members of the S. A. had come out of the defeated German army, and were in effect mercenary thugs. The principal attraction of the S. A. to many of its members was not the political ideology of the party for which it worked (although a great many of them were probably Nazi sympathizers), but rather its pomp, regalia and display (the S. A. wore the uniform of the defeated German army, evoking patriotic spirit among both its members and the general public), which were used to great effect to boost party membership (indeed, this was one of the main aims of the S. A.) and to attract new sympathizers. The main job of the S. A. was to provide security for the Nazi party, particularly at its rallies, which could easily have been ruined with the presence of a few hardcore opposition supporters intent on causing damage to their political enemies; equally, the S. A. was designed to disrupt the meetings of opposition parties, and to attack (physically, rather than verbally) their politicians, and, particularly when the Nazis were in power, the Jews. The S. A. offered stability to its members, in a time at which unemployment was astronomically high; it also gave a sense of purpose to its more politically motivated members, who may well have felt that they were fighting for the good of the Fatherland. Indeed, the ideologies of members of the S. A. varied widely, from the nationalist conservatives in the army whose views verged on the fascist, to those with strong socialist sympathies, such as Rohm, the leader of the S. A. until the ‘Night of the Long Knives' in June 1934. b. Explain the reasons why the Wall Street Crash was important to the success of the Nazis after 1929. The main effect of the Wall Street Crash of October 1929 on the politics of Germany was the polarization of political opinion that it caused. The Crash caused the United States to recall the loans that it had made to Germany (and to other European powers, although they were less badly affected than Germany because they owed less money to the US, as Germany was being rebuilt almost entirely with US money after the war), thus causing economic chaos. A banking crisis led to a sharp drop in spending, causing businesses to go bankrupt, and thus causing mass unemployment. The people that lost out the most were the middle classes, as the very rich had enough money that they could get by easily, and the poor were mostly agricultural workers, who could survive by subsistence farming and selling their goods, which were essential to everyone. Almost all of the more enthusiastic supporters of the democratic Weimar republic also came from the middle classes, and with the collapse in their way of life caused by the Wall Street Crash and subsequent financial crisis in Germany, the government inevitably shouldered much of the blame. With most of the government's support having evaporated, people inevitably looked to alternative systems of rule – principally those at almost diametrically opposite ends of the spectrum: the nationalist ultra-conservative Nazi party, who promised to sort out the country, and the Communists and Socialists (Russia had been unaffected by the Wall Street Crash, owing to the fact that private ownership of land – and thus the mortgages upon which people in Germany had to default – was forbidden). It is worth remembering that the Nazi party was not the only party to which people turned in the times of hardship after the Wall Street Crash. While the support for Weimar universally collapsed, both the Communists and Nazis gained seats in the September 1930 Reichstag elections (although the Nazis did so in far greater quantity – their number of seats rose by 983% in the elections, as opposed to the Communists' relatively meagre forty-three percent rise). However, it is certain that this huge rise in popularity was caused, for the most part, by the middle classes deserting Weimar, and giving their support to the Nazi Party, which was, after all, far more respectable than the Communist Party. So convinced were many industrialists (notably the Thyssen and Schnitzler families) by Hitler's anti-communist promises that they gave large sums of money to the Nazi party, a fact which demonstrates the respect given to the Nazi Party by many people held in high regard. While the Wall Street Crash was a principal factor in the rise of the Nazi party, it was by no means the only one. The death in October 1929 of Gustav Stresemann, the extremely able Chancellor, struck another blow to the Weimar government, contributing to its loss of popular confidence. He was succeeded by Brunning, who imposed a rigorous economic policy of cuts, enforced by presidential decree from the aging von Hindenburg, which, although they may have been a possible solution to the economic problems of Germany, were deeply unpopular, and meant that still fewer middle class people supported the democratic system of government. His foreign policy, however, was remarkably similar to Hitler's – he talked of remilitarizing the Rhineland, and even of Anschluss with Austria. The blaming of the Communists and consequent elimination of opposition in the next elections after the Reichstag fire was also an extremely important factor in the NSDAP's gaining a majority in the Reichstag and thus eventual power, with Hitler as Chancellor. The Wall Street Crash was thus important to the rise of the Nazi party after 1929 because it resulted in an economic crisis in Germany, which precipitated a loss of confidence in the Weimar government from the middle classes. The hard times in Germany led to political polarization, and, while the Nazis were not the only beneficiaries of this, they certainly received a boost in their levels of support. However, it was not the only reason for their rise to power – the Reichstag fire and thus the elimination of opposition to the Nazi party, and before that, the death of Stresemann, both contributed to the NSDAP's rise to power.

How to Ensure Individual Freedom and Community-Building in a Society?

Topic: How to ensure individual freedom and community-building in a society? Every people want to live freely to do whatever they want in a society with freedom and want to communicate with every social groups or governments to build up a good community. If we want to ensure individual freedom I shall briefly that what is the freedom and community is? Freedom is the power or rights to act, speak or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint. Community means that all people living in a particular area or place which call local communities.How to ensure individual freedom and community-building in a society? First of all, Individual freedom is talk about people is given rights to pursue life, liberty and happiness. To ensure individual freedom in society is security. Security is the most important point for the individual freedom because security is the degree of protection to safeguard for citizens live in country. If the country does not maintenance the security for the citize ns or in society have not well developed in security, so the citizens or in society have no freedom to act or rights to do everything and it might be harm in society.But if the society does maintenance the security for the citizens or this country in society will have no war. And also a country which provides citizens live in freedom under well developed in security in everything that they feel free to do anything they want. Hence, people have individual freedom that want to do everything freely because freedom is born out of an understanding of natural law and natural consequences and that drive each of us to be personality responsible for our own actions, to be self-reliant in our thinking and in our work.Second, to ensure individual freedom in society is self-autonomy because self-autonomy is a self-governing in society whom responds for our own actions in society. If we have self-autonomy to do something, to govern in our own decision in society, it seems that we strongly have a bility to do everything. So self-autonomy is another point that seek to individual freedom. For the community-building is creation or enhancement of community among ndividual within regional area or with common interest. To improve community-building we have to make social capital. Because social capital produce a sense of belonging which make an increasing overall health of community. Social capital is a social group that cooperated between citizens and governments that participates in society. To increase evidence shows that social capital cohesion is critical for societies to prosper economically and for development to be sustainable.Social capital is focus on social relations that have productive benefits. It is the most important participates in this society is to make social group and the governments make it to the strong system one to ensure which mean to build up the local communities or social truth governments and create more policies. Thus, to ensure community-building in society is we have social capital which have group of social or governments cooperating to build up the strong community.To sum up, we seems to ensure individual freedom and community-building in a society have many reasons or explanations to describe. For reasons or explanations to ensure individual freedom are security and self-autonomy. If every people live in society does have individual freedom which means that their society must have well developed in security and have self-autonomy. But for the ensure community-building is about social capital which means that all citizens and governments work together with a good community in society.

Effect of Skill Gaps in the telecommunications Industry Essay

Effect of Skill Gaps in the telecommunications Industry - Essay Example The major structural change within the telecommunication industry is the globalization of the industry. Moreover, the telecommunication industry has been liberalized within the world economies. Nonetheless, the adoption and application of innovative technologies has been impacted largely by the changes in skill needs which are aimed at filling the skill gaps which emanate from the application of advanced technology within the industry. This essay gives a critical analysis and discussion of how the skill gaps and needs in additional to structural changes within the telecommunication industry have impacted on the labor needs within the industry. Skill gaps within the telecommunication industry have developed as a result of the changes in the industry operations and processes. Sumit (2008, p. 587) elaborates that these changes emanate from the application of modern technologies within the telecommunication industry which is aimed at adapting to the changing business environment and rema ining competitive. Diana (2011, p. 93) asserts that the skill gaps which develop within the telecommunications businesses have led to the reduced productivity. ... According to Keefe (2009, p. 43), the skill gaps within telecommunication industry have led to the increased need for training staff. The management and employees are trained on the application of advanced technology in the provision of telecommunication products and services to the customers. For example the use of telecommunication software applications which are adopted by the telecommunication companies leads to the increased need for training. Maria (2011) reveals that effective management of the telecommunication companies includes meeting the training needs of employees and the management so that the skill gaps and needs is met within the various functional areas. Skills are acquired through proper training of employees. Managers would also be trained in order to be able to apply the management information systems effectively in the management of telecommunication business processes. Diana (2011, p. 103) adds that managers are also trained in the use or application of the deci sion support systems in decision making on the various aspects of telecommunication business. Batt, Colvin & Keefe (2002, p. 587) point out that the skill gaps within the telecommunication companies have caused their management to adopt employee termination programs to pave way for the employment of skilled labor. This is usually the case when the anticipated costs of training are beyond the budgetary allocation for employee training. The loss of company employees has led to the reduced morale and motivation among the work force. Additionally, the ability of skilled employees to adapt to the changes within the labor force of an organization determines the achievement of objectives. Keefe (2009, p. 47) exemplifies that many telecommunication

Non-Traditional courses Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Non-Traditional courses - Term Paper Example Non-Traditional courses Nontraditional courses are slowly finding their way in the curriculum of various colleges and universities. Students get a formal scholarly education, for instance, on rock music, vampires, or Star Trek.This paper begins by outlining the characteristics of quality education. The qualities of nontraditional courses that embody quality education are then highlighted. It is concluded that nontraditional courses complement traditional courses and, therefore, should be offered by schools. Nontraditional Courses and Quality Education Quality education equips students with the proper set of knowledge and skills they need to excel in their chosen discipline, commits a holistic approach to learning by considering the theoretical as well as the practical sides of knowledge, aligns itself with contemporary times, and makes learning fun. Students are equipped with the right set of knowledge and skills in nontraditional courses, although it may appear it different form and content. For example, t here are certain disciplines that warrant the teaching of nontraditional courses. In a Television Studies class, for instance, an entire course devoted to " Dallas " and "Dynasty" is deemed necessary. In other instances, cultural, political, and social concepts are best illustrated through these courses. Explaining gender roles or racial identities as demonstrated in â€Å"Dallas" satisfies learning objectives. ... Rock Culture" course, for instance, students readily see how theories of culture, ideology, and ethnicity play out in the seemingly innocent and value-free discipline of music. In studying "Star Trek", students get to learn and immediately apply valuable life lessons the film portrays. By constantly exposing students to these courses, their ability to find theoretical explanations of a phenomenon and apply them in real-life situations would be enhanced. What nontraditional courses offer which traditional courses lack is the attachment to the concrete and immediate realities of life. They are not widely detached from the phenomena or environment they seek to explain. Nontraditional courses, then, offer students a holistic view of the world by combining theory and practice. The most important defining characteristic of nontraditional courses, arguably, is their ability to reflect contemporary cultural, social, and political landscapes. These courses are able to capture specific moments of cultural, social, and political histories. Constantly moving and changing, they are never stuck in the past. These courses use contemporary events to explain contemporary life. A course on "MTV (music television)", which in itself is an amalgamation of contemporary culture and social landscapes, provides students with knowledge that is aligned with contemporary realities. It teaches students a specific set of knowledge while drawing on their own experiences of watching MTV. While traditional courses can practically impart the same knowledge, the attachment of nontraditional courses to the contemporary times makes learning more concrete, practical, and immediate. Finally, nontraditional courses make learning more interesting and fun. Because of their rigid structure, traditional courses

Discussion board reply Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Discussion board reply - Assignment Example Another informative aspect that has been highlighted includes job evaluation that can determine the position that an employee is worth of after a period of protracted service. Same to Roer and Wills (2014) ideas, I have learned that job evaluation is essential in determining the value of an employee to an organization. In organization that are based on service delivery are an exceptional case when it comes to job evaluation. It is hard to estimate the economical values of such employees. In such case the, topic of interest can be borrowed for a redress in this scenario. In future, a person focused pay system would be the best solution for me in cases that involve service industry employees. Nadasen (2012) indicated that a person focused pay system is key in giving a justified wage to employees. This an aspect that is very informative and educative at the same time. Roer, R. E., & Wills, L. P. (2014). Department of Labor to Revise Federal Regulations Interpreting the Right to Receive Overtime Pay under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. Employee Relations Law Journal, 40(3),

Consumer behavior Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Consumer behavior - Article Example The consumers tend to involve themselves in the products and follow up on the progress of the offers. An example of enduring involvement is a motorcycle enthusiast who constantly researches about motorcycles to find the best models. Further, enduring involvement is characterized by substantial interest in activities that boost the enthusiasm. Such activities include going to motor showrooms to check the models in the market. Situational involvement occurs when a consumer is interested in a product for a short time. The situation happens mostly as a result of need or demand for a certain commodity. The consumer may not have information or necessarily be interested in a long term involvement and looks for information to enable him make a purchase decision. For example, a consumer may get involved in smartphones when he or she wants to buy a phone. However, the interest on smartphones fades when the consumer purchase a smartphone of his choice. There are instances where consumers report their interest towards a certain offering or decision. In such instances, the consumer exhibits felt involvement and feels motivated towards making decisions regarding certain offerings. A consumer gets involved in offerings that he or she has had a psychological experience with (Samli 131). Thus, felt involvement arises from a historical perspective of the consumer about a product. For example, a consumer may form a positive opinion about a car that he or she has witnessed winning car races. Cognitive involvement occurs when a consumer is keen on understanding the offers in the market before making a purchase decision. The consumer then compares the information against his goals and makes a wise decision. In essence, cognitive involvement treats information gathering as part of the objectives off the consumer. For example, a consumer interested in a Ford

National security policymaking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

National security policymaking - Essay Example An ideal civil-military relationship is one where civil leadership provides the broad political and security objectives, while military leadership is primarily concerned with the execution of such civilian policies on the field (Elliot, 2002:2). The military institution functions on the basis of a set of values that restricts individual behavior since it emphasizes organizational success and victory in war over the elevation of personal goals.3 However as Feaver and Kohn (2000) point out, since there is currently an absence of an urgent threat to the nation’s security, democratic society will not support an adequate military, as a result of which the military’s loyalty to civilian authority is likely to diminish. Hooker (2003-4) asserts that civilian control over the military is undisputed, since Presidential approval is required for all senior military officers and Congressional approval is mandated for all officer promotions4. Military structure, pay and budgets are regulated by civilians, therefore civilian authority can disregard independent military advice. However, as Hooker points out, the reality is that civilian authority which attempts to force the military to do its bidding may pay a political price, since opposition parties are likely to exploit such differences of opinion, especially in war time. Besides, political leaders consistently seek affirmation from the military for their programs and policies. Military leaders are obligated to testify honestly to Congress about policy decisions affecting their service – especially those they disagree with, while simultaneously refraining from publicly exposing differences within the Administration due to the acknowledged preceden ce of civilian authority, which again blurs the dividing line between civil and military. A survey conducted by Hooker5 demonstrates that the civil-military gap is widening, with the increasingly

Diversity management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Diversity management - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that one of the greatest tasks individuals face is communicating across differences resulting from different cultural diversity. There is always fear that exists that what an individual will intend to say will be understood in a way that they never meant it to be due to cultural differences in a team. The author’s research team was composed of seven members that were four local students and three Chinese. Through the group activity, the researcher has personally gained a lot from working with his research team on diversity management. From the group activity, the researcher was able to learn that cultural awareness is the base of communication and it entails the ability of individuals to stand back and become aware of their cultural values, beliefs, perceptions, and differences. It is essential for individuals to understand the reason why they do things differently, why they react differently in particular ways and perceive the world in different ways. Cross-cultural awareness is central when individuals interact with people from different cultures as individuals will evaluate and interpret things in different ways. What can be considered as inappropriate behavior in one culture is considered as appropriate behavior in another culture. As a U.K local, it is almost automatic to perceive the Chinese as individuals who always work and talk about business over tea and lunch breaks instead of sitting down and enjoy their meals. Thus, it is crucial to understand the meaning that people give to certain activities according to different cultures. DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT - Essay Example Furthermore the authors relate these two modes to six dimensions of cultural diversity. Their main idea is to consider interrelation between cultural diversity and co-operation. Respondents were chosen from France Telecom Mobile and Orange UK’s integration team thus showing that diversity has not influenced much on co-operation. Furthermore the authors suggest an interesting explanation of cultural diversity: they consider it to be a means for explanation ‘interindividual difficulties’ (Dameron, Joffre). It is possible to claim that this article does not only directly concern issues of diversity management, but also suggests a new and unique point of view; it considers diversity management in another perspective. A consideration of human interaction in business world is one of the most striking issues of the modernity. Interpersonal differences caused by cultural, moral and religious background are more often obstacles in the working environment that innovative visions. Diversity in the business world has started to be considered separately from domestic diversity issues quite recently. A new approach to consideration of diversity management in the business world is caused by a high-speed development of national and organizational cultures. Cross-cultural studies of diversity management are helpful for joint-ventures and other forms of organization. The conducted studies reveal peculiarities of business conduct on the international arena with representatives of different cultures. There is another important tendency in modern diversity management: a consideration of cultural diversity to be a motive force of business conduct. Cultural diversity is a common phenomenon nowadays. It is considered to be prestigious to have foreign business partners and culturally diverse employees. This tendency can be explained by the fact that sharing culturally diverse experience can become another asset of the

Taxation essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Taxation - Essay Example For example, government can come to a decision to impose lofty tax on illegal business to assist discourage the investors from venturing into the enterprises. Further, tax treatment plays an imperative role in determining to which scope the scheme appreciates inter-personal differences in lifetime proceeds. Thus, the procedure of taxation influences the conduct of small enterprises and allotment of resources to outsized firms. In relation to this, vigilant blueprint of savings and taxation leads to equalization of tax load in taxpayers with identical lifetime incomes (Blank 2004, 26). Relating to household saving, populaces save when the sum of money they desire to consume is dissimilar from the income they obtain. For example, some people may find expenditure smoothing hard to attain particularly if they have little returns. Therefore, decisions made by people relies less on long-term philosophy and more on aspiration for immediate indulgence. Finally, populaces save less when they earn smaller amounts yet have high needs. Additionally, due to poor rationality, there is a driving power to the government to build up savings, pensions, and public insurance. Regarding above, taxation consequently directly affects the wellbeing of people predominantly during the periods of joblessness or sequestration. Thus, in order to a faultless tax system, the government should rely broadly upon concepts like tax neutrality in order to structure its assessment (Diamond 2005, 99). This paper provides characteristics that will be able to identify a good tax system for an open economy and particularly suggest how the United Kingdom tax system should be reformed with the aim of making it ideal. The Mirrlee review was as a result of research that was carried by Sir James Mirrlee and his associates with the aim of analyzing and coming up with a

Literature review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Literature review - Essay Example This is where ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) comes into the picture. ERP in the form of software applications will integrate all the departments and thereby will integrate the internal and the external management information across the organization. By integrating the information and then making it available to the needed departments, ERP will optimize the various organizational processes. With ERP producing optimal benefits, it is being implemented in organizations in various sectors. However, the implementation process will not be a smooth flowing affair, as various risk factors could impede it. When ERP is implemented, apt change management practice has to be initiated. However, various risk factors could arise during this change management process, thus turning out be a major impediment for ERP implementation. In addition, when the employees are trained and equipped to handle ERP, another set of risk factors will arise. Then, there could risk factors related to the software c ustomization according to the organizational processes. ... Singla and Goyal (2006) adds to this perspective by stating, how ERP can upgrade an organization’s ability to generate timely, relevant and accurate information needed for the various organizational processes throughout the enterprise and its supply chain. ERP made its appearance in the 1990’s, when Information Technology (IT) and its applications made its presence in various spheres of human life, particularly in business organizations. It was also during that period, many firms around the world started shifting their IT strategy from â€Å"developing information systems in-house to purchasing application software such as enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems.† (Hong and Kim 2002). Sumner (2000) adds additional perspective by stating how organizations are initiating various projects by using ERP packages like SAP, Peoplesoft and Oracle, and how these projects often represent the single largest investment in an information systems (IS) project in the histori es of these companies. (Sumner 2000). Organizations are making such large investments in ERP because of the benefits that will be returned by it. Singla and Goyal (2006) lists out various benefits of ERP, which include shortening of the production cycles, accuracy accentuation regarding the demand for materials management, etc. While Singla and Goyal (2006) provided benefits of ERP’s implementation in the manufacturing side, Iskanius (2009) gives a list of benefits across various departments, which includes â€Å"cost reduction, productivity and quality improvement, customer service improvement, better resource management, improved decision-making and planning, and organizational empowerment†. Because

The Place of Diversity Essay Example for Free

The Place of Diversity Essay The term â€Å"Diversity† is a dimension that can be used to differentiate groups and people from one another. (Bacher, 200) The word itself has become more frequently used in recent years as the world is beginning to encompass people with many differences. Diversity covers a range of characteristics and deals with how we accept and deal with how we accept or respect those characteristic. Bucher , 2010) In other words, diversity is just not about ethnicity, race, gender but its much broader then we actually think but it’s the otherness or those human qualities that are different from our own and outside the groups, to which we belong, yet present in other individual groups. The specific characteristic or trout’s that difference people or groups are referred to as the dimensions of diversity (Bucher, 2010). As one recognizes the many dimensions of diversity, it is important to note that not all of the dimensions are visible. Many all of the dimensions are visible. Many of our dimensions that make us different are considered hidden because they are not apparent by working at a person. Also, some dimensions may be a person’s race, gender, or ethnicity (Bacher, 2010). Sometimes hidden dimensions can include non- physical traits such as social class, religion, level of education, sexual orientation, and religion, level of education, sexual orientation, or marital status. We can recognize that diversity can have different meanings; we must also recognize that people will have their own dimensions of diversity, whether visible or hidden. My Place for Diversity Multimedia Review: I completed and viewed the profiles and observe the Characteristics of the people in the multimedia. I recognize how there can be preconceived ideas of how a person will look if they contain certain dimensions. As I completed the profile, I reviewed Tammy. Reading the non- observable characteristic. I used my own stereotype and prejudices to attempt to determine which person would match the given description, I was wrong. The method I used to determine who fit the profile could be considered visible dimension. I only can conceive what I see not what is hidden my visible dimension maybe consider optimism. The profile describe this person being born in syracaur, NY, they lived in an upscale suburb. These people graduated at the age of 17, then went to college out of state and visit her family during the summer breaks; she is 5ft 3 in tall with few gray hairs. Next, I ruled out the other woman because their description didn’t fit in my mind to the non- observable characteristic. Why? While one lady looked as if she was upscale by her dressed appearance and long dark hair setting in a office seat. Actually, after I read the observable characteristic, then I noticed that Tammy did fit the visible dimension because of her work baggage on her work uniform. Also she had glasses on that made her look professional. Most hidden dimension can be over looked by just judging the outer appearance whether then accepting the person and respect their uniqueness. When you see many different sides of other cultures, you are now being well-versed, and can make sensible assessments about others.

Structure of Collagen Proteins

Structure of Collagen Proteins Collagen forms the majority of the protein that is found in mammalian organisms and constitutes 30% of the total protein mass of a human. By being used as a gibbet, collagen is utilized by body cells towards the molding of their surroundings. This eventually creates an atmosphere favorable for normal cell function as well as the development of the tissues. Apart from providing mechanical support, collagen have several ligands which improve the performance of factor receptors and integrins that can control cellular procedures such as cell union, cell migration commonly known as chemotaxis, remodeling of tissues, as well as the healing of wounds. Collagen comprises of between 25 and 35 percent of the total protein tissue present in a mammals body. The hair, connective tissues as well major connective tissues are made up of collagen. Collagen is structured into fibrous strands, precise to their role (Lamberg 226). Collagen is broken down into several sub-units known as tropocollagen. A Tropocollagen has a form of a triple helix attached to a hydrogen bond to form a polypeptide chain. A sample Collagen is predominantly made up of amino acids. It has high levels of proline and glycine alongside hydroxylysine and hydroxyproline. Vitamin C is essential during the building up process of collagens, although it is not a direct constituent of the amino acid chain. Currently, there are 29 known collagen types of fiber. The most prevalent in the body are the type 1, 2, 3 and 4. The type one collagen is present in all soft tissues inclusive of the internal organs, the bones and tendons as well as the skin. On the other hand, Type 2 collagen is found in the cartilage of the body structures while type 3 is common in reticular membranes and tissues. Additionally, Type 4 collagen is only found in the membranes of the cell basement. If the formation of collagen happens inside the cell, then the process is known as vivo formation. In this process, three peptide chains appear in the ribosomes all along the rough endoplasmic reticulum. On the contrary, if the collagen is formed outside the cell, then the method of formation is known as vitro formation. According to this process, Collagen is produced in a laboratory through manual procedures. One collagen is made up of a chain of five small tropocollagen molecules. The protein strand is made up of the ami no acid base. The staggered arrangement of Tropocollagen molecules permits them to adhere to adjoining strands and thus providing the fibers with additional strength (Murrieta 16). By designation, a collagen molecule is made up three ÃŽÂ ± chains also known as polypeptide chains and contains on the least, one domain having a repeating Gly-X-Y sequence in all of the essential chains (Myllyharju and Kivirikko 26). At present, all vertebrates are made up of at least 27 collagen types each having 42 distinct ÃŽÂ ± chain. A number of collagens make up homotrimers having three ÃŽÂ ± chains whereas others have two or even three distinct ÃŽÂ ± chains. The X and Y locations can contain any amino acid apart from glycine. Characteristically, proline is only available in the X spot with 4-hydroxyproline in the Y position. Whereas 4-hydroxyprolines are necessary for the solidity of the triple helix, glycines are essential for filling the three chains into a coiled-coil configuration. This formation is exemplified as a left-handed helix that is wound about a regular axis to form a triple helix with a one-dimensional right-handed superhelical pitch, producing the ultimate arrangement of a rope-like rod. Collagen Types With the aim of avoiding confusion, collagens are given roman numerals in the order that they have discovered. Whilst referring to the composition of a collagen, each of the three ÃŽÂ ± chains is initially quantified for chain number (1, 2, or 3) and thereafter the type of the collagen is identified. For instance, ÃŽÂ ±2 (I) refers to the second ÃŽÂ ± chain is type I whereas ÃŽÂ ±1 (II) refers to the first ÃŽÂ ± chain is type II collagen. Collagen division into families is made essentially by the apparatus and organization of matrix gathering. The following are the nine collagen families along with their respective types. fibril-forming (I, II, III, V, XI, XXIV and XXVII), fibril-associated collagens with interrupted triple helices (FACITs) positioned on the exterior of fibrils (IX, XII, XIV, XVI, XIX, XX, XXI, XXII and XXVI), hexagonal form (VIII and X), basement membrane forming (IV), beaded filaments (VI), affixing fibrils for basement membranes (VII), transmembrane domains (XIII, XVII, XXIII and XXV), and the family of type XV and XVIII collagens (Kivirriko 123). Definite collagens are articulated in a tissue definite approach, as depicted in types II, IX and XI that are set up almost entirely in cartilage, although type XVII is just found in skin hemidesmosomes. In addition, some collagen forms are ordinary in the majority of extracellular matrices, as in the case of type I. Furthermore, collagen fibrils that frequently comprise more than one kind of collagen. Such a type I collagen may also possesses smaller amounts of types III, V and XII. Additional heterogeneity in the super family may be as a result of unusual splicing of the records of several genes as well as the use of option promoters in a number of genes. Through the huge figure of structurally distinct members of the super family involves being caught up in numerous biological functions (Kadler 124). Collagen assembly Most of the collagens have a similar formulation procedure thats characteristically linked with type I. By starting inside the cell, three peptide chains are produced in ribosomes all along the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER). The chains formed are then referred to as preprocollagens and each one of them possess registration peptides on the end as well as a signal peptide. Upon completion, these peptide chains are then sent into the lumen of the RER somewhere they are slashed into their procollagen shapes. Whilst in the RER, the chains progress to undertake a chain of efficient changes. Initially, the lysine as well as proline amino acids are hydroxylated, a procedure that depends on ascorbic acid. Subsequently, precise hydroxylated amino acids are glycosylated, permitting the three chains to relate into a triple helical formation. Lastly, the procollagen is transported to the Golgi apparatus for packaging as well as secretion in a process known as exocytosis. The moment the collagen is outside the cell, it is again reordered into a functional matrix. listing peptides are sliced via procollagen peptidase, to form tropocollagen, which can which has the potential to aggregate itself and form collagen fibers. In the case of non-fibular collagen, the N- and C-propeptides remain in the cell where they assist in directing super molecular assembly. Following the formation of fiber, inter-chain cross-linking of collagen take place between lysine and hydroxylysine residues subsequent to deamination from lysyl oxidase (Kivirriko 123). Molecular Structure A collagen molecule also known as tropocollagen is a sub-unit of bigger collagen collection as in the case of fibrils. The molecule has a diameter of around 1.5nm and is 300nm long. It is made up of three polypeptide strand, each having left-handed helix conformation. In addition, the three left-handed helices are twisted collectively to form a right handed super helix, a joint quaternary structure alleviated by several hydrogen bonds. The association of type I collagen with possible fibrillar collagens to form a branded triple helix is referred to as microfibril. Every microfibril is interdigitated with its adjoining microfibrils to an extent that may propose that they are independently unbalanced even though within collagen fibrils they are so well structured to be crystalline. Since glycine is the least amino acid having no side chain, it has a unique responsibility in fibrous structural proteins. In the formation of collagen, Gly is essential at all third position since the assemblage of the triple helix holds this residue at the inner (axis) of the helix, wherever there is no gap for a larger side group than glycines sole hydrogen atom. For similar basis, the rings of the Pro and Hyp should point outward. The function of the two amino acids is to help stabilize the triple helix. Fibrillar Structure The tropocollagen subunits impulsively assemble itself with recurrently spread out ends, into even bigger arrays in the extracellular vacant places of tissues. In the case of fibrillar collagens, the molecules are spread out from each other by 67nm. Each and every D-period has 4 and fraction molecules of collagen. This is due to the fact that if you divide 300 by 67 doesnt yield a large integer. Therefore in each D-period duplicated of the microfibril, there exists a part having five molecules in a cross-section known as overlap. On the other hand, the part consisting of four molecules is known as the Gap. The triple-helices may also be prearranged in a hexagonal or quasi-hexagonal arrangement in section, both the overlap region and the Gap. Equally the gap and overlap regions (Xie 549). There exists a covalent is cross connections in the triple helices, as well as an amount of covalent cross connections involving tropocollagen helices outlining a well structured collection like fibrils. Bigger fibrillar bunches are produced with the support of numerous diverse categories of proteins as well as diverse collagen brands, proteoglycans and glycoprotein to shape the diverse kinds of fully-grown tissues from alternating blends of the similar major players. The insolubility of collagens has been a barrier to the research carried out on monomeric until it was discovered that tropocollagen from immature animals could be removed since by then, is it not yet completely cross connected. Nonetheless, progress in microscopy systems microscopy of electron (EM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) and the diffraction of X-ray have facilitated those doing research to acquire gradually more comprehensive figures of collagen configuration in situ. This afterward progress is predominantly significant to improved perception of the system in which collagen configuration influences communication in both intracellular and cell-matrix stages, and how tissues are build in development and restoration, and altered in growth and infection. For instance by means of AFM -based nanoindentation, researchers have been able to show that a particular fibril of collagen is a varied substance alongside its axial course with extensively diverse automatic functions in its fissure and partly covered areas, connecting with its diverse molecular associations in these two areas. The fibrils of collagen are partially crystalline collections of molecules made of collagen. Collagen fibers (filaments) are bunches of fibrils. Fibrils/ collections of collagen are prearranged in diverse arrangements and attentiveness in a variety of tissues to offer unstable tissue elements. In fillets, complete triple helices of collagen are positioned in a parallel, reeled display. Forty nm spaces involving the endings of the tropocollagen subdivisions-roughly equivalent to the breach section- almost certainly act as nucleation position for the deposition of long, hard, fine crystals of the mineral component, which is (approximately) hydroxyapatite, Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 with some phosphate. It is in this way that certain kinds of cartilage turn into bone. Type I collagen gives bone its tensile strength. Prolyl 4-Hydroxylase (P4H) As formerly stated, hydroxylation of the Y-position proline residues is a critical modification for generating stable triple helical collagen. This modification is carried out in the lumen of the RER by the enzyme prolyl 4-hydroxylase (Tandon 199). The vertebrate forms of these P4Hs are ÃŽÂ ±2 ÃŽÂ ²2 tetramers in which the ÃŽÂ ² subunit is identical to the protein disulfide isomerase PDI (Myllyharju, 2003). Various isoforms of the catalytic a subunit have been found in organisms of varying size and complexity; from humans to Drosophila. Another family of P4Hs in the cytoplasm has been uncovered and has been linked to the regulation of the hypoxia-inducible transcription factor HIF. Cytoplasmic P4Hs have no PDI subunit, require different sequences flanking the prolines that are hydroxylated, and have markedly higher Km values (Kivirikko and Myllyharju 199). No overall amino acid sequence homology is detected between the collagen and the cytoplasmic HIF P4Hs, with the exception of critical catalytic residues. HIF is continuously synthesized and under normoxic conditions a critical proline residue in a -Leu-X-X-Leu-Ala-Prosequence is hydroxylated by the cytoplasmic P4Hs, not by collagen P4Hs. The resulting 4-hydroxyproline residue is essential for HIFÃŽÂ ± binding to the von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) E3 ubiquitin ligase complex for subsequent proteasomal degradation. However, under hypoxic conditions hydroxylation ceases, allowing HIFÃŽÂ ± to escape degradation and instead forms a stable dimer with HIFÃŽÂ ² (Jaakkol a, 2001). Once formed, the dimer is translocated into the nucleus and becomes bound to the HIF-responsive elements in a number of hypoxia-inducible genes, such as those for erythropoietin, vascular endothelial growth factor, glycolytic enzymes and even for the ÃŽÂ ±(I) subunit of human type I collagen (Takahashi 200). Illinois Institute of Technology biologist Joseph Orgel used the high-energy X-rays produced by the APS to examine the structure of collagen, a protein that composes more than a quarter of all protein in the human body and forms the principal component of skin, teeth, ligaments, the heart, blood vessels, bones and cartilage. In these tissues, collagen molecules pack themselves into overlapping bundles called fibrils. These fibrils, which each contain billions of atoms, entwine themselves into collagen fibres that are visible to the naked eye (Xuyang 2760). Scientists have known the basic molecular structure of collagen since the 1950s, when several different international groups of scientists discovered that it had a triple-stranded helical structure. However, researches had never before had the ability to study the structure of an entire fibril in the same way that they could study an individual collagen molecule, according to Orgel. Orgel and his team performed diffraction studies on intact collagen fibrils inside the tendons of rat tails in order to understand just how the protein functioned within unbroken tissue. We tried to draw a highly accurate map of the molecular structure of tissues, Orgel said. By doing so, we hope to transform a very basic understanding that we have of the molecular structure of tissue into a much more tangible form. Since the scientists kept the tendon tissue intact, they could see how the collagen molecule binds to collagenases, a class of enzymes which when working properly help to regulate the normal growth and development of animals but when malfunctioning can lead to the metastasis of cancerous tumors or rheumatoid arthritis. The visualization of this interaction could help drug developers to create an inhibitor to prevent the pathological action of the enzyme, Orgel said. Previous studies of the structure of collagen had looked only at crystals of small fragments of the protein, so scientists had little idea of how it looked within intact tissue. Its impossible to get the information that we did by removing tiny chunks of the tissue, Orgel said. We couldnt obtain this data by single-crystal crystallography. This research was made possible only because of the BioCAT beam line provided by the APS. Applications Collagen has been extensively used in beauty surgical procedures, hemostats, mechanism coatings, recovery fluids, formulation recipients, tablets, cartilage rebuilding, medicine release, in addition to skin substitutes for patients with burns. However, both medical and cosmetic use is declining because most commercially available collagens are derived from bovine or porcine tissues. Mainly enriched in type I collagen, these preparations also contain small amounts of type III as well as other collagens that are difficult and expensive to remove from the desired material. Moreover, there is a high rate of allergic reactions from animal-derived collagens, causing prolonged redness. Using collagen derived from cows also poses the risk of transmitting prion diseases such as bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). The scientific community also uses collagen in its studying its role in tissue development and disease. Extracting sufficient quantities of nontraditional or less prominent colla gens is a costly and difficult task (Kadler 196). A processed form of collagen commonly used is gelatin. Derived from denatured collagen, gelatin is composed of a mixture of collagen chains of different length, structure, and composition. This distribution depends on what type(s) of collagens are extracted, the extraction method, as well as the pH and ionic strength of the solution used for processing. Because gelatin is a heterogeneous composition, especially in size and isoelectric point, the resulting products will inevitably have variable gelling and physical properties. This variability presents a significant challenge for medical applications where stability, safety, and control are necessary (Crissman 192). Cheaply produced recombinant collagens and gelatins have the potential to alleviate many of the issues associated with animal derived versions. Given the large number of aforementioned applications there is also a large market in this area. Scalable technology is needed to make microbial expression of recombinant collagens a viable alternative to tissue extraction. Using microbes to engineer collagen allows for greater control over collagen synthesis and organization, which in turn increases the quality, consistency, and safety of collagen production. It would also provide an easy platform for introducing altered primary sequences into recombinant collagens. Such genetic control over collagen structure is crucial in studying the impact of specific mutations on collagen structural hierarchical assembly and associated functions and also would allow for the creation of designer collagen-mimetic materials. Recombinant expression would also allow for the extraction of sufficient quantities of native collagen forms that are present at low levels which are otherwise mainly characterized at cDNA and genomic levels. This would allow for structural and functional analysis of these rarer collagens (Baneyx 114). Biomaterials applications for collagens in hemostats, as skin substitutes, in cartilage reconstruction, and for drug delivery can benefit from the improved purity of cloned sources of collagen. Purity in this case would include both reducing other extracellular matrix components that may be carried through the purification process leading to potential inflammatory responses, or bioburdens with potential impact on human heath, particularly neurological disorders due to prion concerns. Recombinant human collagen seems to avoid immune reactions previously described and is therefore more biocompatible. Recombinantly derived collagen was shown to have superior mechanical strength and haemostatic activity compared to animal derived collagen when formed into a matrix. They can be altered to include bioactive peptide sequences as well as to be collagenase resistant. Recombinant gelatins can be tailored to alter their gelling temperature by controlling their hydroxyproline content. Moreover, they have been shown to be less allergenic. As they are widely used in the food and drug industry, recombinantly derived gelatins can be made animal-free and thus open for consumption by vegetarians (Baez 252).

Article Critique †‘You Have Someone To Trust (2012)

Article Critique – ‘You Have Someone To Trust (2012) Jessica Bowstead Context and Policy Qualitative Research Article Critique – ‘You Have Someone To Trust’ (2012). Jessica Bowstead M2067675 Word Count-1650 Mortimer, J North, K Stead J. (2012). You Have Someone To Trust. Outstanding safeguarding practise in primary schools. Unknown (Unknown), pg1-74. The purpose of this academic piece is to critically evaluate the article ‘You Have Someone to Trust’, it will begin with examining the literature and will discuss data analysis and findings and then will conclude by synthesising evidence as to whether it is a valued piece of work. The article of choice is qualitative. Qualitative research is a term used for research strategies that are aimed at how human beings understand, experience, interpret and produce the social world (Hammersley, 2013). The main strength of qualitative research is it generates an opportunity for great depth and information on the social process (Griffin, 2007). Quantitative data, on the other hand focus’s on counting and classifying features and constructing statistics (Mangell, 2013). Mortimer utilizes the method of ethnography in her research, this largely relies on observation and interviews as an essential aspect of its methods, the researcher endeavours to become part of the research, t aking note of everything they see and hear (Saks and Allsop, 2007). Validity, reliability, and objectivity are criteria used to evaluate the quality of research. As an explanatory method, the content of qualitative research analysis differs from quantitative data, from its assumptions, research purposes, and inference processes, therefore making the criteria unsuitable for qualitative research (Bradley, 1993). Early work conducted by Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggested four measures for evaluating qualitative research: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. For the purpose of this critical review, the author has chosen the McMaster critical appraisal tool Framework (1998, online). Following a full critical evaluation and checklist, it is apparent that Mortimer’s paper is an interesting but a problematic piece of research. You Have Somebody to Trust (2012) was created with the notion that it would specify criteria for practice in relation to safeguarding children. Policy making relies heavily on the academic literature, from the research it is distinguished how severe a problem is, what actions are required and know how implement it into practice (Exblom, 2002). After school and services failed to recognise and understand former legislation, and a series of serious case reviews, a new framework ‘Practical Tips for Schools’ was created in January 2012 (Mortimer et al, 2012). Mortimer’s study helped build the new framework with her research, this was through an evidence-based approach. You have someone to trust was funded by the Children’s Commission, which was established by the Children’s Act 2004 (Mortimer et al, 2004). Due to the nature of the funding, this research could be seen as one sided. It’s the governments duty to ensure practitioners are following safeguarding procedures (GOV.UK [online]) so one might believe that the results may bias to fit their own aims. However, this has not affected the result or completion of the study. It is essential that studies are clear and coherent due to the research being built on previous research (Dawson, Dawson Overfield 2013) allowing the information to be transferred. Here Mortimer clearly discusses the purpose of study in the first section ‘Executive Summary’. It is also explicitly stated in the second section, ‘Object of the Study’ stating â€Å"The research was in order to identify best professional practice in response to child protection and safeguarding concerns in primary schools’ (Mortimer et al, 2012). Although generalizability is disregarded in qualitative studies (Ali Yusof, 2011) it is important the findings from this article are transferable. Although no two schools are the same, the general operation of a school and their approach to safeguarding should be. In qualitative research it is essential to examine the appropriate literature on the issue of the study, this provides the reader with a rational background of the study (Fink Arlene 2005). Mortimer does draw on a significant amount of literature to contextulize her research. In section four, there is a varied quantity of literature on the chosen subject, including ‘Intervening early’ cited by Eason and Gee 2012 and ‘A shared understanding of outstanding practice’ cited by Ofsted Safeguarding Schools (2011) this is predominantly valuable in that it provides evidence of the subject matter. Generally, there is a clear discussion regarding the literature which in turn strengthens her study. Mortimer has chosen to use purposive sampling, she has completed this by intentionally selecting participants who can contribute a deep understanding of the phenomenon that she is studying (Klenk, 2013). The procedure of sample selection was not highlighted in Mortimer’s report, this could increase transferability. Without this a notion of bias may be questioned due to the deficiency of information. To strengthen her report Mortimer could have stated the sex, race, age and background of the participants. Discarding this information the paper cannot be seen as a true representation of the population (Janson, 2010) which will decrease transferability. Although the sampling information is limited, one can clearly summarize that the type of sampling here is a Maximum Variation Sampling. This involves deliberately selected cases with a wide variation on dimensional interests as an effort to understand the context and created transferbility (Polit Beck, 2013). In the executive summary section it states that ‘ the sample of the school, which were visited were specifically selected to ensure a variation in size, geographical location and demographic intake’(Mortimer et al, 2012). Here Mortimer has addressed the appropriate actions and increased her confimability in relation to the school selection. There was no declaration as to whether all participants took part, allowing the reader to assume that all asked contubuted to the study. Overall, the choice of sample selected for the research purposes is suitable as it does seem to offer a generous opportunity for research into the properties of safeguarding in education. Nevertheless, due to the lack of information provided the results lack confimibility and tranferability. Mortimer does not go into any substantial detail about the process of data collection, in section five there is a vague mention of it however, only basic information is provided. It states that semi structured interviews and survey’s had taken place, but again examples are not specified. The reader was not able to critique the question’s appropiability or comment if they were clearly understood. Survey respondents misunderstand questions more often than one might expect, and the collection process mistakes are difficult to discover and correct (Conrad Schober 2005). To improve the validity of the research, Mortimer could of included member checks. Member checks involve sharing all of the findings with the participants, allowing them to question and comment on the authenticity of the work (Creswell, 2007) this would eliminate any misunderstandings. Forwarding that Mortimer could have piloted her study so she was able to recognise any gaps in her proposal method (Sampson , 2004). The researcher has a clear responsibility to ensure that they protect the right and well being of their participants irrespective of the nature of their research, there are many guidelines that reinforce these principles and many aspects are legally enforceable (Eby, 1991). Mortimer does not discuss any ethical issues that she considered, or whether ethical approval was given. Participants who are subject in a research subject must be competent, have full disclosure of the subject field, understand the process and voluntarily participate (Emanuel, Abdoler Stunkel 2006). This is not disclosed in Mortimer study, therefore the reader is required to assume that the correct ethical procedures were adopted. The data analysis of the study was satisfactory. Mortimer provided a clear breakdown of the data that she gathered. However, no coding was present, coding is an important aspect of a study, it allows studies to be repeated and validated, it makes methods transparent (Shenton, 2004). In Mortimer’s case the coding should of been finalized once the survey was completed and in the case of interviews after the data was collected (Bourque, 2004). She included several direct quotes from participants, which increase the credibility in her research. Quotations give an insight and meaning and illustrate the argument (Holloway Wheeler, 2013) facilitating the reader to understand how the findings were presented. However, it ought to be recognized that her findings are clearly presented and concluded. You have someone to trust (2012) can be seen as having an insignificant amount of credibility. Credibility can be defined as ‘The plausibility of one’s study’ (Pitney Parker 2009). This article is a recent document created in 2012, suggesting that the information if current and up to date, furthering that, credible sources have been researched through the paper such as the NSPCC Safeguarding For Children. The investigators, background and qualification are unknown, Patton 1990 believes that the credibility of the researcher is especially important as it is the person who collects the data. It is believed that this is equally as important as the procedure credibility (Alkin, Daillak White, 1979). Beyond that, triangulation is a credible strategy that Mortimer does practice. Individual interviews, focus groups and surveys are used along with supporting data from documents. Other credible strategies include member checks and a prolonged study time (Munkhjargal, 2006). However, these were not applied throughout Mortimers study. Through triangulation of data collection methods, interviewing and data analysis, Mortimer has enhanced the validity of her work. Alongside these methods of data collection Mortimer has kept her focus on the objectives of her study. Mortimer has created transferability in her research through referencing literature collected on similar topics and areas. The research intentions are indeed found as a result of the work. That being stated, the subject field was very brief and a large amount of data could have been supplied to enhance the validity of the article. Without these any reader may believe that she has become too subjective in her decisions to understand her participants, reducing confimability in her work. Nevertheless, one can expect to ensure comparable results in similar settings from this study, making it clear that the researcher was dependable. On a whole it is clear that the research was valuable, ‘Practical Tips For Schools’ was created and the objective of the study achieved. References Akin, M, Daillak, R White, P (1979) Using evaluation: does evaluation make a difference? Beverly Hills: Sage Volume 76. Ali, A Youseff H. (2011). Quality in Qualitative Studies. Issues in Social and Environement Accounting. 5 (1/2), p25-64. Bourque, Linda B. Coding. In The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods. Eds. Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Timothy Futing Liao, v. 1, 132-136. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2004. Bradley, J. (1993). Methodological issues and practices in qualitative research. Library Quarterly, 63 (4), 431-449. Conrad, F Schober, M. (2005). Journal of Official Statistics. Promoting Uniform Question Understanding in Today’s. 21 (2), P215-231 Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Creswell, JW. (1998). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design Choosing Among Five Traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Dawson, M, Dawson, B Overfield, J. (2013). Reading for Your Research Project. In: Unknown Communication Skills for Biosciences. Unknown: Wiley Blackwell. p67. Eby M 1991, Ethical issues in nursing research: the wider picture. Nurse Researcher 3 (1), 5-13 Emanuel, E Abdoler, E Stunkel, L. (2006). How to treat people who Participate in research. Research Ethics. Unknown (6), p7. Fink Arlene (2005). Conducting Research Literture. 2nd Ed. London: SAGE. p46-58. Griffin, C. (2007). The advantages and limitation of qualitative research. Unknown. 11 (3), p127-156. Hammersley, M (2013). What is qualitative research?. London: Bloomsbury. p2. Holloway, I Whealer, s (2013). Qualitative Research in Nursing and Healthcare. 3rd Ed. West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing. p325. Jenson, H. (2010). The Logic of Qualitative Survey Research and its Position in the Field of Social Research Methods. Qualitative Social Research. 11 (2), p. Klente, K (2008). Qualitative Research in The Study of Leadership. Bingley: Emerald Group. p11. Letts, L., Wilkins, S., Law, M., Stewart, D., Bosch, J., Westmorland, M.. (2007). Critical Review Form. Available: http://www.srsmcmaster.ca/Portals/20/pdf/ebp/qualreview_version2.0.pdf. Last accessed 15th Jan 2015. Lincoln, YS. Guba, EG. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications Mangel, S K (2013). Research Methodology in Behavioural Science. Unknown: PH Learning Privert Limited. p45 Munkhjargal, D. (2006). Data analysis. The Relationship Between Mathematical Discourse and the Curriculum. Unknown (3), p90. Patton, M (1990) Qualitative Education and Research Methods. 2nd Ed Newbury Park: Sage Pitney, W Parker, J (2009). Qualitative Research in Physical Activity and the Health Professions. Canada: Unknown. P63-64. Potit, F Beck, C (2013). Essentials of Nursing Research. 8th Ed. Unknown: Walter Klue Health. p285. Saks, M., and Allsop, J., (2007) Researching Health, Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods. London. Sage Sampson, H. (2005). Qualitative Research. Navigating the waves: the usefulness of piloting in research. 4 (3), p383-402. Shenton, Andrew K. â€Å"The analysis of qualitative data in LIS research projects: A possible approach.† Education for Information 22 (2004): 143-162 Unknown. (2014). GOV.UK. Available: https://www.gov.uk/schools-colleges-childrens-services/safeguarding-children. Last accessed 15th Jan 2015. 1

Thomas Batemans Ten Years Diggings :: Anglo Saxon Essays

Thomas Bateman's Ten Years' Diggings Benty Grange, Derbyshire, 1848 May 3rd,- It was our good fortune to open a barrow which afforded a more instructive collection of relics than has ever been discovered in the county, and which surpasses in interest and remains hitherto recovered from any Anglo-Saxon burying place in the kingdom. The barrow, which is on a farm called Benty Grange, a high and bleak situation to the right of the road from Ashbourne to Buxton, near the eighth milestone from the latter place, is of inconsiderable elevation, perhaps not more than two feet at the highest point, but is spread over a pretty large area, and is surrounded by a small fosse or trench. About the centre and upon the natural soil, had been laid the only body the barrow ever contained, of which not a vestige besides the hair could be distinguished. Near the place which, from the presence of hair, was judged to have been the situation of the head, was a curious assemblage of ornaments, which, from the peculiarly indurated nature of the earth, it was impossible to remove with any degree of success. The most remarkable are the silver edging and ornaments of a leathern cup, about three inches diameter at the mouth, which was decorated by four wheel shaped ornaments and two crosses of thin silver, affixed by pins of the same met al, clenched inside. The other articles found in the same situation consists of personal ornaments, the chief of which are two circular enamels upon copper 1 3/4 diameter, in narrow silver frames, and a third, which was so far decomposed as to be irrecoverable; they are enamelled with a yellow interlaced dracontine pattern, intermingled with that peculiar scroll design, visible on the same class of ornaments that figured in Vestiges p.25, and used in several manuscripts of the VIIth Century, for the purpose of decorating the initial letters. The principle of this design consists of three spiral lines springing from a common centre, and each involution forming an additional centre for an extension of the pattern, which may be adapted to fill spaces of almost any form.

Essay --

The true Zodiac is conceptual division of space into 12 equal segments, which radiate out from the ecliptic, that is, the apparent path of the Sun. However, the Zodiac also refers to the 12 constellation of stars that nowadays symbolize different human personality types. The term â€Å"Zodiac† has Greco-Roman origins and means â€Å"Circle of animals,† although these â€Å"signs† are not restricted too zoological beasts but encompass human forms, too. The Chinese Zodiac bears no relationship to any constellations. The Zodiac is both a symbol in its own right as well as a collection of symbols. These symbols are totems for each of the 12 astrological signs. It is a circle of completion, a continually turning wheel, divided into a spiritually perfect number, 12. Each of the different segments expresses a phase of development in the cycle of the Universe as well as in humankind collectively and for each individual, singularly. By 2000 BC, the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians were using four particular constellations as markers for the changing seasons. These four star clusters are the ones that we stil...